A Complete Guide to Millet Flour Processing: Specifications, Types, and Applications

Types of Millet Flour Processing

Millet flour processing is a vital agricultural and food production practice that transforms raw millet grains into fine, usable flour for a wide range of culinary and industrial applications. This process begins with the selection of appropriate millet varieties—such as pearl millet, finger millet (ragi), proso millet, and foxtail millet—each offering unique nutritional profiles, textures, and flavor characteristics that influence the final product.

Beyond grain selection, millet flour processing is broadly categorized into two distinct methodologies: traditional and modern industrial. These approaches differ significantly in scale, technological complexity, labor intensity, and end-product consistency. Understanding both methods provides valuable insight into their respective benefits, limitations, and suitability for different consumer and commercial needs.

Traditional Millet Flour Processing

Commonly practiced in rural and community-based settings, traditional processing emphasizes natural, low-tech methods passed down through generations. It typically occurs at small-scale local mills or even in households, preserving cultural heritage and promoting organic, minimally processed food.

• Grain Selection & Cleaning: High-quality millet grains are hand-sorted and cleaned to remove stones, dust, and foreign matter using sieves or winnowing techniques.
• Hulling: The outer husk is removed manually via pounding with wooden mallets or using basic mechanical hullers, preserving grain integrity without excessive heat.
• Soaking & Fermentation (Optional): Particularly for finger millet, soaking and natural fermentation enhance digestibility, reduce anti-nutrients, and improve flavor and nutrient bioavailability.
• Drying: Sun-drying is the most common method, allowing slow moisture reduction while preserving nutrients. Occasionally, simple shaded drying racks are used in humid climates.
• Milling: Flour is produced using hand-operated stone grinders, mortar and pestle, or small electric mills, resulting in coarser, more fibrous flour.
• Sifting: The milled flour is manually sifted through cloth or mesh to separate fine flour from bran and coarse particles.

Advantages

• Maintains natural grain structure and nutrients
• No chemical additives or high-heat processing
• Supports local economies and sustainable agriculture
• Produces flavorful, artisanal flour with cultural significance

Limitations

• Labor-intensive and time-consuming
• Limited output and scalability
• Inconsistent flour texture and particle size
• Shorter shelf life due to higher oil content and moisture

Best for: Artisanal baking, health-conscious consumers, rural communities, gluten-free diets with emphasis on whole foods

Modern Industrial Millet Flour Processing

This large-scale, technology-driven approach is designed for high-volume production, consistency, and commercial distribution. Utilizing advanced machinery and standardized procedures, modern processing ensures uniform quality, extended shelf life, and compliance with food safety regulations.

• Grain Selection & Cleaning: Automated systems such as vibrating screens, air separators, and magnetic traps remove impurities with high precision, ensuring only premium grains proceed.
• Hulling: Industrial dehullers use friction or impact mechanisms to efficiently remove husks with minimal grain breakage and high recovery rates.
• Soaking & Conditioning: Controlled soaking with water and heat treatment prepares grains for uniform drying and milling, improving efficiency and flour yield.
• Drying: Large-scale drum dryers or fluidized bed dryers rapidly reduce moisture under controlled temperature and humidity, preventing microbial growth and spoilage.
• Milling: Roller mills, hammer mills, or stone-based industrial systems grind millet into fine, consistent flour with adjustable particle size for specific applications.
• Sifting & Grading: Multi-stage sieving and optical sorting separate flour by fineness, removing any residual bran or oversized particles for a refined product.

Advantages

• High throughput and production efficiency
• Consistent flour quality and texture
• Extended shelf life due to precise moisture control
• Scalable for national and international markets

Limitations

• High initial investment in machinery and infrastructure
• Potential nutrient loss due to heat and over-processing
• Less connection to traditional or artisanal methods
• Higher energy consumption and environmental footprint

Best for: Commercial bakeries, packaged food manufacturers, export markets, and large-scale food fortification programs

Expert Tip: For optimal nutritional retention in traditional processing, avoid prolonged sun exposure during drying and use cool, shaded areas when possible. In industrial settings, consider low-temperature milling to preserve heat-sensitive vitamins and antioxidants in millet flour.

Specifications and Maintenance of Millet Flour Processing

Millet flour processing is a precision-driven operation that combines technical accuracy, equipment reliability, and environmental responsibility to deliver high-quality, nutritious flour. Achieving consistent output requires careful attention to key technical specifications, rigorous maintenance protocols, and robust quality control systems. From moisture control to energy efficiency, every stage of processing plays a vital role in ensuring product safety, shelf life, and consumer satisfaction.

Technical Specifications in Millet Flour Processing

The technical parameters of millet flour production directly influence the texture, nutritional profile, and storability of the final product. Adhering to industry-standard specifications ensures uniformity, enhances process efficiency, and supports compliance with food safety regulations.

Moisture Content (12%–14%)

Optimal moisture content in raw millet grains—between 12% and 14%—is essential for efficient milling and long-term storage. Grains with moisture above this range are prone to mold growth, spoilage, and clogging during processing, while overly dry grains (<12%) may shatter, increasing flour fines and reducing yield.

Regular moisture testing using calibrated moisture meters ensures consistency. Conditioning or pre-drying steps may be required depending on harvest conditions and storage duration.

Particle Size (Mesh Range)

Flour fineness is determined by sieve size and is tailored to end-use applications. Fine millet flour typically ranges from 80–100 mesh (150–180 microns), ideal for baking, infant foods, and smooth porridges. Coarse flour (40–60 mesh, ~250–425 microns) is preferred for traditional flatbreads, textured blends, and brewing.

Adjustable sieves and classifiers in the milling line allow for precise particle size control, ensuring batch-to-batch uniformity and meeting customer specifications.

Hulling Efficiency

Hulling efficiency measures the percentage of husk removed without damaging the kernel. High-efficiency hullers (85–95%) minimize grain breakage and nutrient loss, preserving the integrity of the millet endosperm. Poor hulling leads to higher bran contamination, off-color flour, and reduced shelf life.

Efficiency depends on roller gap settings, rotational speed, and grain uniformity. Regular calibration and operator training are critical for maintaining peak performance.

Milling Temperature Control

Excessive heat during milling degrades heat-sensitive nutrients such as B-vitamins and antioxidants. To preserve nutritional value, milling temperatures should be maintained below 40°C (104°F).

This is achieved through controlled feed rates, intermittent processing cycles, and cooling systems (e.g., air or water-cooled jackets). Infrared thermometers can be used for real-time monitoring at critical points in the mill.

Equipment Material Standards

All processing equipment—hullers, grinders, conveyors, and storage bins—should be constructed from food-grade stainless steel (e.g., SS304 or SS316) or non-corrosive, wear-resistant alloys. These materials resist abrasion from hard millet husks, prevent metal contamination, and are easy to clean and sanitize.

Plastic or composite components in contact zones should be FDA-approved and resistant to microbial growth. Avoid carbon steel or uncoated metals that can rust and contaminate flour.

Energy Efficiency & Waste Management

Modern millet processing emphasizes sustainability. Energy-efficient motors, variable frequency drives (VFDs), and heat recovery systems (e.g., capturing dryer exhaust for preheating) can reduce energy consumption by up to 30%.

By-products like husks, bran, and broken grains should be repurposed—converted into animal feed, organic compost, or biomass fuel—minimizing waste and creating additional revenue streams.

Maintenance Practices for Optimal Performance

Preventive and routine maintenance is crucial for minimizing downtime, ensuring food safety, and extending equipment lifespan. A structured maintenance program enhances operational reliability and protects product quality.

Quality Control and Process Standardization

Consistent quality is the cornerstone of consumer trust and market competitiveness. A comprehensive quality control system integrates testing, process monitoring, and continuous improvement.

Important: Always follow equipment manufacturer guidelines and food safety regulations (e.g., HACCP, ISO 22000) when setting up and maintaining your millet flour processing line. Neglecting maintenance or deviating from technical specifications can result in product recalls, equipment failure, or regulatory penalties. Investing in training, monitoring, and preventive care ensures long-term profitability and product excellence.

Uses of Millet Flour Processing: A Comprehensive Guide

The applications of millet flour processing span across multiple industries, making it a highly versatile and sustainable agricultural product. From food innovation to renewable energy and animal nutrition, millet flour and its by-products contribute significantly to health, sustainability, and economic development. This guide explores the diverse uses of millet flour in food, agriculture, non-food industries, and environmental stewardship.

Food Industry Applications

Millet flour is a nutritional powerhouse in modern and traditional food systems. Its naturally gluten-free profile, rich mineral content, and mild nutty flavor make it ideal for a wide range of culinary uses.

• Baking: Widely used in gluten-free baking, millet flour produces light-textured breads, muffins, cakes, and cookies. It blends well with other flours and binding agents like xanthan gum to improve structure and moisture retention.
• Flatbreads: A staple in African, Indian, and Middle Eastern cuisines, millet flour is used to make nutritious flatbreads such as rotis, injera, and dhokla. These are not only gluten-free but also rich in complex carbohydrates and fiber.
• Porridges and Hot Cereals: When mixed with hot water or milk, millet flour creates a smooth, easily digestible porridge. Often fortified with fruits, nuts, or spices, it serves as a wholesome breakfast for all age groups.
• Snacks and Energy Bars: Combined with oats, seeds, and dried fruits, millet flour forms the base of healthy snack bars and baked crisps. Its high energy density and slow-digesting carbs make it excellent for sustained energy.
• Beverages: Used in traditional fermented drinks like millet beer (e.g., umqombothi in South Africa) and non-alcoholic porridge-based beverages, millet flour contributes probiotics, B-vitamins, and essential minerals.
• Infant Food: Finely milled millet flour is a preferred ingredient in baby cereals and weaning foods due to its gentle digestibility, low allergenicity, and rich content of iron, zinc, and calcium—critical for early development.

Key Benefit: Millet flour supports gut health and blood sugar regulation due to its high fiber and resistant starch content.

Health & Nutritional Advantages

As consumer demand for clean-label, nutrient-dense, and allergen-free foods grows, millet flour has emerged as a top-tier functional ingredient in health-focused diets.

• Gluten-Free Alternative: Ideal for individuals with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity, millet flour offers a safe and nutritious substitute in everyday baking and cooking.
• Rich in Nutrients: High in magnesium, phosphorus, iron, and B-complex vitamins, millet flour supports metabolic health, bone strength, and energy production.
• Antioxidant Properties: Contains phenolic compounds and flavonoids that help combat oxidative stress and inflammation.
• Low Glycemic Index: Helps maintain stable blood sugar levels, making it suitable for diabetic-friendly diets.
• Plant-Based Protein Source: Provides 10–12% protein per serving, including essential amino acids like leucine and isoleucine.

Pro Tip: Pair millet flour with legume flours (e.g., chickpea or lentil) to enhance protein quality and amino acid balance.

Agricultural & Animal Feed Uses

Millet flour processing generates by-products such as bran, husks, and residual grain matter that are highly valuable in livestock and poultry farming.

• Animal Feed: The high fiber and moderate protein content of millet by-products make them excellent supplements in cattle, poultry, and swine diets. They improve digestion and reduce feed costs.
• Allergen-Safe Feed: Unlike wheat or soy, millet is low in common allergens, making it suitable for sensitive animals or organic farming systems.
• Feed Pellet Additive: Millet flour acts as a natural binder in feed pellet production, improving pellet durability and nutrient retention.
• Forage Enhancement: When combined with other feedstocks, millet-based feed improves weight gain and egg production in poultry.

Sustainability Note: Utilizing processing by-products reduces waste and supports circular agricultural economies.

Non-Food & Industrial Applications

Beyond nutrition, millet flour and its raw materials are being explored for innovative industrial and environmental uses.

• Biodiesel Production: Millet seeds contain 3–5% oil, which can be extracted using solvents like ethanol or hexane. This oil is being researched as a feedstock for biodiesel, offering a renewable alternative to fossil fuels.
• Biodegradable Packaging: Starch extracted from millet flour is used in developing edible films and bioplastics for sustainable food packaging.
• Fermentation Substrate: In biotechnology, millet flour serves as a carbon source for microbial fermentation to produce enzymes, organic acids, and bioethanol.
• Cosmetic Applications: Fine millet powder is used in natural skincare products for its exfoliating and oil-absorbing properties.

Emerging Use: Pilot projects in India and Africa are testing millet-based biofuels for rural electrification and cooking fuel alternatives.

Sustainability & Environmental Impact

Millet cultivation and processing contribute positively to ecological balance and climate-resilient agriculture.

• Soil Health: Millet crops improve soil structure and fertility when used in crop rotation with legumes or cereals. Their deep root systems prevent erosion and enhance water retention.
• Low Water Requirement: Millet is drought-tolerant and thrives in arid regions, requiring up to 30% less water than rice or wheat.
• Reduced Fertilizer Dependency: Due to its efficient nutrient uptake, millet reduces the need for synthetic fertilizers, lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
• Carbon Sequestration: As a C4 plant, millet efficiently fixes carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change mitigation.
• Supports Biodiversity: Promotes polyculture farming and reduces reliance on monocultures, enhancing ecosystem resilience.

Global Impact: The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) promotes millet as a "climate-smart crop" for food security in vulnerable regions.

Market & Economic Opportunities

The growing demand for sustainable, health-focused, and gluten-free products has elevated millet flour to a high-value commodity in global markets.

• Export Potential: Countries like India, Nigeria, and China are expanding millet flour exports to meet international demand in health food sectors.
• Value-Added Products: Processed millet flour enables small-scale entrepreneurs to create ready-to-eat meals, baking mixes, and infant foods.
• Rural Development: Millet processing units provide employment in rural areas, especially for women-led cooperatives.
• Organic Certification: Millet flour from pesticide-free farming commands premium pricing in organic markets across Europe and North America.

Trend Alert: The global millet market is projected to grow at over 6% CAGR through 2030, driven by health and sustainability trends.

Expert Insight: To maximize the benefits of millet flour processing, integrate it into a holistic value chain—from sustainable farming and efficient milling to innovative product development and eco-friendly packaging. This approach not only enhances profitability but also supports food security, environmental health, and rural livelihoods.

Future Outlook and Innovations

• Nano-Encapsulation: Research is underway to encapsulate millet nutrients for enhanced bioavailability in functional foods.
• 3D Food Printing: Millet flour is being tested as a printable food matrix for customized nutrition in healthcare settings.
• Prebiotic Development: Fermented millet flour is being studied for its potential as a natural prebiotic to support gut microbiota.
• Zero-Waste Processing: Innovations aim to use every part of the millet grain—flour, bran, husk, and straw—for food, feed, fuel, and fiber.
• Smart Farming Integration: IoT and AI are being used to optimize millet cultivation and processing efficiency in real time.

How to Choose Millet Flour Processing: A Comprehensive Guide for Bulk Buyers

Choosing the right millet flour processing method is a strategic decision that significantly impacts product quality, cost-efficiency, and market competitiveness. This guide outlines the essential factors bulk buyers and food manufacturers must evaluate when selecting a millet flour processing partner. From nutritional integrity to sustainability practices, each element plays a crucial role in ensuring your final product meets consumer expectations and regulatory standards.

Key Insight: The processing method directly influences the nutritional profile, shelf life, and sensory attributes of millet flour. Selecting a processor that aligns with your brand values and technical requirements ensures consistent product quality and customer satisfaction.

1. Quality: The Foundation of Premium Millet Flour

The quality of millet flour is determined by multiple interrelated factors, including nutritional content, flavor, color, texture, and consistency. These attributes are influenced not only by the raw millet variety but also by post-harvest handling, dehulling efficiency, grinding techniques, and storage conditions.

• Nutritional Value: Proper processing preserves essential nutrients such as fiber, protein, magnesium, and antioxidants. Overheating or excessive refining can degrade heat-sensitive vitamins.
• Taste & Aroma: High-quality processing minimizes off-flavors and rancidity, preserving the natural nutty or earthy notes of the millet.
• Color & Appearance: Uniform color (ranging from creamy white to light gray or beige) indicates consistent dehulling and minimal contamination.
• Texture & Particle Size: Fine, consistent grind improves baking performance and mouthfeel. Sieving and grading ensure uniformity across batches.

2. The Type of Millet: Matching Variety to Application

With over seven commercially available millet types, each offers unique characteristics suited to specific culinary and industrial applications. Understanding these differences helps buyers select the right flour for their product line.

3. Processing Method: Balancing Tradition and Technology

The choice between traditional and industrial processing depends on scale, quality control needs, and target market. Each method has distinct advantages and trade-offs.

• Traditional/Local Milling:
  • Uses stone grinders or hammer mills with minimal automation
  • Offers flexibility for small-batch, artisanal production
  • May lack consistency in particle size and hygiene standards
  • Ideal for niche markets and local supply chains
• Industrial-Scale Processing:
  • Features automated cleaning, dehulling, polishing, grinding, and packaging lines
  • Ensures batch-to-batch consistency, food safety compliance (e.g., HACCP, ISO)
  • Higher throughput and lower labor costs per unit
  • Suitable for large-scale commercial buyers and export markets

Expert Tip: Request a processing flowchart from potential suppliers to assess their quality control checkpoints, such as metal detection, sieving, and moisture testing.

4. Cost of Processing: Understanding the Price Drivers

The final cost of millet flour is shaped by several interdependent factors. Buyers should analyze both direct and indirect costs to make informed procurement decisions.

• Raw Material Cost: Varies by millet type, seasonality, and regional availability
• Scale of Operation: Larger volumes typically reduce per-unit processing costs
• Technology Investment: Automated systems have higher upfront costs but lower long-term operating expenses
• Labor & Energy: Manual processes are labor-intensive; industrial systems require skilled technicians and energy inputs
• Location: Proximity to farms reduces transportation costs and supports fresher raw materials

5. Supply Chain Efficiency: Ensuring Reliability and Traceability

A robust supply chain is critical for consistent quality and timely delivery. Evaluate processors based on their sourcing practices, logistics infrastructure, and inventory management.

• Access to high-quality, non-GMO, and organically grown millet
• Skilled workforce trained in food safety and equipment operation
• Efficient transportation networks to minimize delays and spoilage
• Traceability systems (farm-to-fork) for transparency and recall readiness
• Storage facilities with controlled humidity and temperature to prevent mold and pests

6. Customization: Meeting Specific Market Needs

Leading processors offer customization options that allow buyers to tailor flour specifications to their product formulations.

• Particle Size: Fine, medium, or coarse grind for different applications (e.g., baking vs. thickening)
• Fortification: Addition of vitamins, minerals, or protein isolates
• Blending: Creating custom millet flour blends (e.g., ragi + foxtail) for enhanced nutrition or flavor
• Packaging: Bulk bags, food-grade liners, or retail-ready packaging
• Quality Standards: Compliance with organic, gluten-free, non-GMO, or export certifications

7. Sustainability: A Growing Market Imperative

Consumers and regulators increasingly prioritize environmentally responsible production. Sustainable processing practices not only reduce ecological impact but also enhance brand reputation.

• Water & Energy Use: Adoption of energy-efficient machinery and water recycling systems
• Waste Management: Utilization of millet husk for animal feed, biofuel, or composting
• Carbon Footprint: Local sourcing and reduced transportation emissions
• Social Responsibility: Fair wages, safe working conditions, and support for smallholder farmers
• Certifications: Look for processors with organic, Fair Trade, or eco-label credentials

Pro Tip: Conduct on-site visits or request third-party audit reports to verify a processor’s claims about quality, sustainability, and food safety practices.

Final Recommendations for Bulk Buyers

• Request sample batches to evaluate flour quality before committing to large orders
• Negotiate long-term contracts with volume-based pricing and quality guarantees
• Prioritize processors with transparent sourcing and traceability systems
• Consider co-packing or private labeling options for brand differentiation
• Stay updated on millet research and emerging processing technologies to maintain a competitive edge

Selecting the right millet flour processing partner is more than a transaction—it's a strategic alliance that affects your product quality, cost structure, and brand integrity. By carefully evaluating quality, variety, processing methods, cost, supply chain resilience, customization capabilities, and sustainability practices, bulk buyers can make informed decisions that drive long-term success in the growing health food market.

Frequently Asked Questions About Millet: Nutrition, Uses & Benefits

Millet seeds are small, nutrient-dense ancient grains that have been a staple in many cultures for thousands of years. Naturally gluten-free, they are an excellent choice for individuals with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity. Packed with dietary fiber, B vitamins (especially niacin, B6, and folate), magnesium, phosphorus, and antioxidants, millet supports a wide range of health benefits:

• Digestive Health: The high fiber content promotes regular bowel movements and supports a healthy gut microbiome.
• Energy Production: Rich in complex carbohydrates and B vitamins, millet helps convert food into usable energy, making it ideal for active individuals.
• Bone Strength: Contains essential minerals like magnesium and phosphorus, which play a key role in maintaining strong bones and teeth.
• Blood Sugar Regulation: Its low glycemic index helps stabilize blood sugar levels, beneficial for people managing diabetes.
• Versatility in Cooking: Millet can be cooked into creamy porridge, used as a rice substitute, popped like popcorn, or ground into flour for baking gluten-free bread, pancakes, and muffins.

Due to its mild, slightly nutty flavor and easy digestibility, millet is a great addition to plant-based, whole-food, and therapeutic diets.

While millet is highly nutritious, there are a few considerations to keep in mind, especially with excessive or improper consumption:

• Digestive Sensitivity: High fiber content can cause bloating or gas in some individuals, particularly those not accustomed to fiber-rich diets. Soaking or sprouting millet before cooking can improve digestibility.
• Goitrogenic Compounds: Millet contains natural goitrogens—substances that may interfere with thyroid function by inhibiting iodine uptake. This is generally only a concern for individuals with existing hypothyroidism or iodine deficiency, especially when consumed in large quantities without adequate iodine intake.
• Kidney Stone Risk: Millet is rich in oxalates and minerals like calcium and magnesium. In susceptible individuals, high oxalate intake may contribute to the formation of kidney stones. Moderation and proper hydration are key.
• Availability and Cost: Compared to mainstream grains like rice or wheat, millet may be harder to find in conventional grocery stores, especially in urban areas, and can be more expensive depending on the region.
• Cooking Technique: Improper cooking (e.g., using too little water) can result in a bitter or gritty texture, which may deter some users.

To minimize risks, consume millet in moderation, pair it with iodine-rich foods (like seaweed or iodized salt), and consider soaking or fermenting it before use.

Proper processing ensures millet retains its nutritional value, flavor, and shelf life. The ideal processing workflow includes the following stages:

For home use, pre-hulled millet is widely available. However, understanding the full process helps in selecting high-quality, minimally processed products and supports informed decisions for bulk or artisanal preparation.

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) is widely regarded as one of the best varieties for everyday consumption due to its balanced nutritional profile, ease of cooking, and mild flavor. Here’s why it stands out:

• Nutritional Benefits: High in protein, iron, and essential amino acids; lower in calories compared to rice.
• Digestibility: Easier to digest than many other grains, making it suitable for children, elderly individuals, and those with sensitive stomachs.
• Culinary Flexibility: Cooks quickly (15–20 minutes), absorbs flavors well, and works as a base for porridge, upma, pilaf, or salads.
• Gluten-Free & Diabetic-Friendly: Ideal for gluten-free diets and has a low glycemic index, helping maintain steady blood sugar levels.
• Sprouting Potential: Easily sprouted, enhancing its nutrient availability and enzyme activity.

Other excellent daily options include pearl millet (bajra) for colder climates and proso millet for quick meals. However, foxtail millet offers the best combination of nutrition, taste, and versatility for regular inclusion in meals.

Millet grain has been a dietary staple across Africa, Asia, and parts of Eastern Europe for over 10,000 years. Today, its uses span culinary, agricultural, and industrial applications:

• Human Food:
  • Porridge and Breakfast Dishes: Cooked with milk or water, often flavored with spices, fruits, or honey.
  • Flour for Baking: Used in flatbreads (like roti), pancakes, cookies, and cakes—especially in gluten-free baking.
  • Rice Substitute: Served as a side dish similar to quinoa or rice.
  • Fermented Foods: Used in traditional fermented beverages, dosas, and idlis in South Indian cuisine.
  • Popped Snacks: Dry-heated to create a popcorn-like treat.
• Animal Feed: Widely used in poultry and birdseed due to its high energy content and palatability.
• Beverage Production: Fermented to make traditional beers (e.g., in Africa) and non-alcoholic drinks.
• Industrial Uses: Explored in biofuel production and as a sustainable crop in arid regions due to its drought resistance.
• Dietary Inclusion: Popular in vegan, paleo, Ayurvedic, and macrobiotic diets due to its alkalizing properties and ease of digestion.

With rising interest in sustainable, climate-resilient crops, millet is experiencing a global resurgence as a nutritious, eco-friendly alternative to water-intensive grains like rice and wheat.